Immune checkpoint inhibitors have markedly improved outcomes in patients with multiple advanced malignancies. However, their widespread use has markedly increased the incidence of immune-related adverse events (irAEs). irAEs can affect a wide range of organ systems and are characterized by heterogeneous onset, broad toxicity spectra, and complex management requirements, thus ultimately impairing treatment continuation and patient quality of life. This review systematically summarizes the epidemiological features, clinical progression, and current management of irAEs. Existing guidelines largely focus on acute toxicities but have not provided structured strategies for chronic, delayed-onset, or multisystem irAEs. Moreover, clinical practice is hampered by incomplete multidisciplinary collaboration, insufficient training of oncologists, and fragmented treatment pathways, all of which limit the efficacy of irAE management. We propose incorporating irAE management into core oncology training and call for the establishment of comprehensive interdisciplinary frameworks to ensure the standardized long-term use of immunotherapy.

Primary cilia, microtubule-based organelles protruding from the surfaces of most eukaryotic cells, have critical roles in maintaining cellular homeostasis, by sensing, transducing, and transmitting diverse extracellular and intracellular signals through multiple signaling pathways, including the Hedgehog, Notch, and Wnt pathways. Consequently, structural or functional abnormalities in primary cilia often lead to various human diseases, including cancer. Although primary cilia are frequently absent in most cancer types, they paradoxically facilitate tumor initiation and progression in certain malignancies. Therefore, elucidating the complex interplay between primary cilia and cancer might provide novel insights for cancer treatment. In this review, we summarize current insights into the structure and function of primary cilia, explore their roles in key tumor-associated signaling pathways, and discuss emerging evidence linking ciliary dysfunction to cancer development and progression. We also highlight recent advances in targeting cilia-associated mechanisms as potential therapeutic strategies in oncology.

Breast cancer mortality is driven predominantly by metastasis, which affects 20–30% of patients with early-stage disease despite guideline-directed therapies. Because conventional imaging modalities currently lack sensitivity to identify residual disease, molecular-level monitoring must be developed. Circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) profiling currently enables transformative minimal residual disease (MRD) detection and can quantify tumor burden at low variant allele frequencies. This review provides a comprehensive overview of MRD in breast cancer, including its definition, detection technologies, positivity thresholds, pathophysiology, clinical applications in adjuvant and neoadjuvant settings, ongoing clinical trials, challenges, and future directions. ctDNA-defined MRD has potential as a precision tool for adaptive therapy, and might facilitate post-adjuvant interception, whereby targeted therapies are administered to eradicate micro-metastases before radiographic recurrence. Persistent challenges include MRD assay standardization, subtype-specific MRD thresholds, tumor heterogeneity, and positioning MRD as a potentially valuable tool for precision management in breast cancer.